Robert & Elizabeth Bjork
Robert & Elizabeth Bjork (b. 1939, b. 1940s)
Key Contribution / Core Idea
Introduced the concept of “desirable difficulties” — learning is strengthened by effortful processes like retrieval practice and spacing.
Background / Context
American cognitive psychologists, active from the 1970s to today. Their research has profoundly shaped modern “evidence-based teaching.”
Main Theories / Methods
Retrieval practice (testing effect): recalling information strengthens memory.
Spaced learning: spreading practice across time aids long-term retention.
Interleaving: mixing different topics or problem types improves learning.
Relevance to Modern KS3/4 Teaching
Directly applied in maths and science revision (e.g., low-stakes quizzes, retrieval grids).
Fits well with current emphasis on knowledge-rich curricula and exam preparation.
Central to today’s discussions on cognitive science in the classroom.
How Their Ideas Link to Others
Build on experimental psychology (Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve).
Provide a scientific counterpoint to methods like mind maps and “learning styles.”
Strengths and Appeal
Strong evidence base from decades of experiments.
Practical strategies teachers can adopt immediately.
Criticisms and Limitations
Students often resist, as these methods feel harder.
Effects can vary depending on subject and context.
Legacy / Lasting Influence
Core to the “researchED” movement in UK education.
Their work underpins much of today’s teacher training in study skills.
Further Reading
Bjork & Bjork, “Making Things Hard on Yourself, But in a Good Way” (2011).